Functions of money
The basic function of money is to enable buying to be separated from selling, thus permitting trade to take place without the so-called double coincidence of arter. In principle, credit could perform this function, but, before extending redit, the seller would want to know about the prospects of repayment. That equires much more information about the buyer and imposes costs of information and verification that the use of money avoids.
If a person has something to sell and wants something else in return, the use of money avoids the need to search for someone able and willing to make the desired exchange of items. The person can sell the surplus item for general purchasing power - that is, “money” - to anyone who wants to buy it and then use the proceeds to buy the desired item from anyone who wants to sell it.
The importance of this function of money is dramatically illustrated by the experience of Germany just after World War II, when paper money was rendered largely useless because of price controls that were enforced effectively by the American, French, and British armies of occupation. Money rapidly lost its value. People were unwilling to exchange real goods for Germany's depreciating currency. They resorted to barter or to other inefficient money substitutes. Price controls reduced incentives to produce. The country's economic output fell by half. Later the German “economic miracle” that took root just after 1948 reflected, in part, a currency reform instituted by the occupation authorities that replaced depreciating money with money of stable value. At the same time, the reform eliminated all price controls, thereby permitting a money economy to replace a barter economy.
These examples have shown the “medium of exchange” function of money. Separation of the act of sale from the act of purchase requires the existence of something that will be generally accepted in payment. But there must also be something that can serve as a temporary store of purchasing power, in which the seller holds the proceeds in the interim between the sale and the subsequent purchase or from which the buyer can extract the general purchasing power with which to pay for what is bought. This is called the “asset” function of money.
Anything can serve as money that habit or social convention and successful experience endow with the quality of general acceptability, and a variety of items have so served - from the wampum (beads made from shells) of American Indians, to cowries in India, to whales' teeth among the Fijians, to tobacco among early colonists in North America, to large stone disks on the Pacific island of Yap, to cigarettes in post-World War II Germany and in prisons the world over. In fact, the wide use of cattle as money in primitive times survives in the word pecuniary, which comes from the Latin pecus, meaning cattle. The development of money has been marked by repeated innovations in the objects used as money.
The use of metal for money can be traced back to Babylon more than 2000 years BC, but standardization and certification in the form of coinage did not occur except perhaps in isolated instances until the 7th century BC. Historians generally ascribe the first use of coined money to Croesus, king of Lydia, a state in Anatolia. The earliest coins were made of electrum, a natural mixture of gold and silver, and were crude, bean-shaped ingots bearing a primitive punch mark certifying to either weight or fineness or both.
The use of coins enabled payment to be by “tale,” or count, rather than weight, greatly facilitating commerce. But this in turn encouraged “clipping” (shaving off tiny slivers from the sides or edges of coins) and “sweating” (shaking a bunch of coins together in a leather bag and collecting the dust that was thereby knocked off) in the hope of passing on the lighter coin at its face value. The resulting economic situation was described by Gresham's law (that “bad money drives out good” when there is a fixed rate of exchange between hem): heavy, good coins were held for their metallic value, while light coins were passed on to others. In time the coins became lighter and lighter and prices higher and higher. As a means of correcting this problem, payment by weight would be resumed for large transactions, and there would be pressure for recoding. These particular defects were largely ended by the “milling” of coins (making serrations around the circumference of a coin), which began in the late 17th century.
A more serious problem occurred when the sovereign would attempt to benefit from the monopoly of coinage. In this respect, Greek and Roman experience offers an interesting contrast. Solon, on taking office in Athens in 594 BC, did institute a partial debasement of the currency. For the next four centuries (until the absorption of Greece into the Roman Empire) the Athenian drachma had an almost constant silver content (67 grains of fine silver until Alexander, 65 grains thereafter) and became the standard coin of trade in Greece and in much of Asia and Europe as well. Even after the Roman conquest of the mediterranean peninsula in roughly the 2nd century BC, the drachma continued to be minted and widely used.
The Roman experience was very different. Not long after the silver denarius’s, patterned after the Greek drachma, was introduced about 212 BC, the prior copper coinage began to be debased until, by the onset of the empire, its weight had been reduced from 1 pound (about 450 grams) to half an ounce (about 15 grams). By contrast the silver denarius’s and the gold aurous (introduced about 87 BC) suffered only minor debasement until the time of Nero (AD 54), when almost continuous tampering with the coinage began. The metal content of the gold and silver coins was reduced, while the proportion of alloy was increased to three-fourths or more of its weight. Debasement in Rome (as ever since) used the state's profit from money creation to cover its inability or unwillingness to finance its expenditures through explicit taxes. But the debasement in turn raised prices, worsened Rome's economic situation, and contributed to the collapse of the empire.
Experience had shown that carrying large quantities of gold, silver, or other metals proved inconvenient and risked loss or theft. The first use of paper money occurred in China more than 1,000 years ago. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries paper money and banknotes had spread to other parts of the world. The bulk of the money in use came to consist not of actual gold or silver but of fiduciary money - promises to pay specified amounts of gold and silver. These promises were initially issued by individuals or companies as banknotes or as the transferable book entries that came to be called deposits. Although deposits and banknotes began as claims to gold or silver on deposit at a bank or with a merchant, this later changed. Knowing that everyone would not claim his or her balance at once, the banker (or merchant) could issue more claims to the gold and silver than the amount held in safekeeping. Bankers could then invest the difference or lend it at interest. In periods of distress, however, when borrowers did not repay their loans or in case of over issue, the banks could fail.
